Hussite flag. Wikipedia
CELIA PÉREZ CARRASCOSA, Prague (Czech Republic)
The execution of Jan Hus in 1415 did not mark the end of his intellectual influence. On the contrary, the Czech theologian’s following grew considerably, especially among the peasants and the bourgeoisie. Moreover, the Czech King Wenceslas IV (King of Bohemia in Western Europe) also supported the Hussite movement, as did some of the lower nobility.
The rise of the Hussites was perceived with rejection and fear by the high nobility, the high clergy and the German patriciate. Tension between the two grew until, in 1420, after the death of Wenceslas IV, King Sigismund of Luxembourg ordered the first crusade against the Hussites. This led to the first of many battles of the Hussite Wars, which turned the former Bohemia into a battleground between the disciples of the priest Jan Hus and the Church of Rome.
Despite the professionalism of the Crusader army, the Czechs counted on Jan Žižka, a vladyka (nobleman) and military leader of the Hussite movement. This warrior led the disciples of the legendary reformer to victory against the Papacy and foreign forces on several occasions, which is why he is considered the national hero of the past and present Czech Lands.
The Hussite movement grows
Jan Hus, among other things, criticised the wealth of the Church and the fact that the Church was getting richer and richer at the expense of its faithful, with practices such as the sale of indulgences. During his years in the pulpit, he won numerous supporters, from the peasantry to the lower nobility. After his death sentence in 1415, there were revolts in many Czech towns, including the capital. Moreover, his followers increased steadily because they all shared the same rejection of the old institution. As we can read in the book The Hussite Movement in Bohemia by Josef Macek, more than a third of the farmland belonged to the Church, which made the old institution the biggest feudal power. Apart from this, the prelates, who did not pay municipal taxes, owned most of the houses which they rented out at very high prices to the bourgeoisie.
Although much of the nobility supported the Church, King Wenceslas IV was an advocate of Jan Hus’s ideas. In fact, both he and his wife, Sophia of Bavaria, attended the masses that the theologian celebrated in the Bethlehem Chapel. Zdeněk Vybíral, deputy director of research and head of the History Department of the Hussite Museum in Tábor, explains that Wenceslas IV supported the theologian’s ideas not only for religious reasons but also for political interests, as he wanted to be re-appointed king of Romans and thought that with this move he could exert pressure on the Papal Court.
Church taxes were constantly increasing, so in the towns where this oppression was so great, as Josef Macek explains in his book, resistance groups were formed, such as in the towns of Klatovy and Pilsen. In the big cities, the confrontation was also between the bourgeoisie and the German patriciate, which supported the prelates. To understand why there was a German patriciate in the Czech Lands, it must be remembered that the territory was part of the Holy Roman Empire, and that from the end of the 12th century, Germans began to settle in the towns of former Bohemia[1] and even founded some of them. These Germans were great merchants and, from the 13th century onwards, they came to wield considerable power in the administration of several Czech cities, such as Prague and Brno.
Between 1415 and 1419, the Hussites grew and armed themselves. However, there were several clashes within the Hussite camp, as some were too radical and raided convents and other church buildings, as happened in Kutná Hora in 1416.
The chalice, the Hussite emblem
Although the chalice is the symbol of the Hussite movement, it was not the idea of Jan Hus himself. According to Blanka Zylinská, professor of history and researcher at Charles University in Prague, “the person associated with this idea is Jakoubek of Stříbro”. Zylinská points out that the Catholic Church reserved the exclusive use of the chalice to the clergy in the 13th century, arguing that this was due to technical issues, such as dishonouring the blood of God during administration, “But it was also an effort to emphasise the exclusivity of the clergy,” she adds.
She explains that the theologian Jokoubek of Stříbro, while studying canon law, discovered what the situation of the Church and the chalice was like in early times. He came to the conclusion that the use of the chalice was necessary for the salvation of all and put it into practice in the autumn of 1414. He sent a letter to his friend Jan Hus, who was already in Constance, explaining why he considered the use of the chalice important for both the clergy and the faithful. At first, Jan Hus was not very much in favour of the new proposal, but finally accepted it, letting him know in a letter.
It is worth noting that all Hussites were either chalicists or utraquists, from the Latin sub utraque specie, which means in both species. It is common to find texts or articles that differentiate between chalicists and radical Hussites. Precisely because of this, Vybíral emphasises that all Hussites were utraquists and that within Hussitism there were factions more radical and more moderate than others, but always within chalicism.
Tábor, the stronghold of the revolution
The Hussite movement was growing not only because of the rejection of the high clergy by the bourgeoisie and peasants. Oratory was of great value, which is why there were important preachers, such as Václav Koranda in Pilsen and the aforementioned Jakoubek of Stříbro in Prague. Thus, as Macek points out in his book, in the spring of 1419 various peasants and even some burghers began to gather in the mountains of the different regions at the request of the various sermons given in the different towns and villages. And little by little the different groups that formed got to know each other. Eventually, in July 1419, Nicholas of Hus, a Hussite nobleman, succeeded in attracting some 40,000 people from Moravia and Bohemia to a hill in South Bohemia. Everyone there communed with both species, displaying utraquism. These people settled there and in 1420 they fortified the new town, which they named Tábor. The name was derived from the mountain of Tábor, near Nazareth, since this town was founded by people governed by the law of God.
Those who lived in Tábor were known as Taborites. Vybíral explains that they were one of the most radical Hussite groups. In fact, in Macek’s book one can read that the Taborites believed in millenarianism, a doctrine according to which Christ will descend from Heaven to reign for a thousand years with the righteous people, and thus put an end to injustice and Evil. After His reign, He and the righteous will go to Heaven, while the rest will go to hell. Thus, several millenarianists saw Evil and injustice in the high clergy and the high nobility, as they oppressed the common people. Moreover, they put primitive Christianity into practice, distributing goods and wealth among all, and administering them according to the needs of each. Vybíral points out that they worked under this system at first, as they eventually reverted to living under a feudal system that was typical of the times they were in.
According to Vybíral, Nicholas of Hus was a nobleman very close to King Wenceslas IV and had several contacts among the Bohemian aristocracy. He was appointed first hejtman (captain) and was the Taborite leader, especially in the field of diplomacy. However, he died very early, in December 1420. Jan Žižka, a one-eyed warrior and member of the lower Czech nobility, formed the Taborite army, was then appointed hejtman and became the military leader of the Hussites. It is worth noting that there were big differences between the two leaders, for Nicholas of Hus was a millenarian, while Žižka did not believe in such theories and was much more pragmatic.
The defenestration of Prague
According to the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), the verb “defenestrate” can mean to throw someone out of a window or to expel someone from a post or position. The famous defenestration of Prague, which was the trigger for the Hussite wars, fulfilled both meanings given by the RAE.
Jan Želivský, a priest and follower of Jan Hus’ theories, used to celebrate mass in the Church of Our Lady of the Snows. On 30 June 1419, after finishing one of his masses, he and his listeners made their way to the town hall in Prague’s New Town. Želivský and his faithful were protesting against the City Council’s refusal to release Hussite prisoners, so the priest and his fellow Prague people stormed the town hall and threw the councillors out of the window. It is important to note that this was the first time Jan Žižka took part in a Hussite attack[2], after which several German patricians and members of the high clergy had to flee Prague and other Czech cities and towns. In addition, their property was confiscated and the capital’s bourgeoisie took control of the town hall. This event was the trigger for the Hussite Wars, as the Catholics and the upper nobility realised that the chalicists were strong and purposeful people and had to be organised against them.
The Czech bourgeoisie was satisfied with what it had achieved, for its advance had long been frustrated by the German patriciate. However, one of the more radical Hussite factions, led by the Taborites, stormed Prague on 30 September 1419. The city council ordered a halt to the attack. In November of the same year, however, the capital was again the scene of clashes between the bourgeoisie, which had allied with the nobility to combat these confrontations, and the more radical chalicists, including Jan Žižka. The latter had to leave the city after their defeat. But they were not separated for long.
The Battle of Vítkov
A few days later, King Wenceslas IV died suddenly, and his brother Sigismund of Luxembourg inherited the Czech throne, but it was not easy for him to gain recognition for the Czech Kingdom. Sigismund considered the Hussite revolution a severe problem for the Czech Lands and a threat to the feudal system, so he decided to finish the Hussites as soon as possible. To this end, Pope Martin V proclaimed a crusade against the heretics in May 1420. The Crusader army comprised soldiers from France, England, Castile, Aragon and other European kingdoms.
Faced with this attack on the Czech Lands, the moderate and radical Hussites understood that they had to unite against the Crusaders and put aside their differences. To this end, they drew up the Four Articles of Prague, a programme with four common goals.
The first article called for freedom of preaching. The second defended the communion between the two species, saying that any believer could take the bread and wine, like the priests. The third article called for the punishment of capital sins without distinction of the person who committed them. Finally, the fourth article demanded that the Church renounce its great fortune and return to poverty. According to the historian Zdeněk Vybíral, many nobles accepted the Four Articles and truly believed in the Hussite reform. However, some became chalicists to get their hands on the wealth of the prelates and later rejected Hussitism.
The siege of Prague by the Crusaders led to the unification of all the chalicists, including the Tábor radicals. Thus, the Taborite army, led by Jan Žižka, marched to the city of a hundred towers and joined other warriors from other parts of the kingdom. The union of the Hussites, whether they were nobles, burghers, peasants, or small craftsmen, meant the organised defence of Bohemia and Moravia against foreign forces. Jan Žižka led the Hussites to their first victory on 14 July 1420 on Vítkov Hill. In this way, the Hussites protected the capital and did not allow the army sent by Sigismund to set foot in Prague. It is worth noting that this part of the city is now called Žižkov, in honour of the Czech strategist.
At the end of 1420, King Sigismund ordered another crusade against the Hussites. This time, the Crusader army met the same fate as in July and was defeated on 1 November at Vyšehrad by Jan Žižka’s troops.
The new direction of Tábor
After the death of Nicholas of Hus on 24 December 1420, Jan Žižka took over the entire leadership of Tábor. With Žižka at its head, millenarianism lost considerable strength. At the same time, the bourgeoisie began to play a more important role in the town. As a result, several millenarianists and villagers fervently against feudalism attacked the hejtman, and Žižka and his army fought against them, killing several of them. Although the most extremist branch, the millenarianists branch, had been liquidated, Tábor continued to grow as a somewhat peculiar town within feudalism. Craftsmen and peasants built the young town, so it had never housed patricians or great lords. Thus, the bourgeoisie, peasantry and other villagers were more radicalised than, for instance, in Prague. So Tábor was still on the radical wing of the movement.
The Czech kingdom was constantly threatened by ecclesiastical power, which is why the chalicists had to unite and act together with the lower nobility and the bourgeoisie, for it was the latter who had the contacts and provided the economic and political support. Therefore, Jan Žižka left the millenarianists aside and opted for the Tabor bourgeoisie. In reality, millenarianism was an obstacle to the advance of Hussitism. Moreover, the peasants and small artisans supported Žižka since they understood that they were all fighting against the Church, the greatest feudal power and that this would help to soften the conditions of the system in which they lived.
The Death of Žižka
Having united all the chalicists, Jan Žižka conquered several cities in which the patricians and the high clergy still held municipal power. In addition, Želivský, the highest representative of the radical Hussites in Prague, formed the Prague Urban Federation, which united the 21 most important towns in Bohemia, such as Kolín and Kutná Hora, under his command. In turn, Jan Žižka formed the Taborite Urban Federation, which consisted of the cities of southern Bohemia, such as Domažlice or Sušice. Both forces worked together politically and militarily to spread Hussism in the Czech Lands.
Žižka’s troops continued to accumulate victories. In the summer of 1421 Sigismund ordered a new crusade against the Czech “heretics”, but the Hussite troops crushed them again. The same happened in 1422, when Pope Martin V again sent more crusades against the Hussites. Around Žižka created a reputation as an invincible warrior that was clearly justified. He also became increasingly influential among the people. Indeed, in 1423, he formed the Hradec Králové Federation, dominating Žižka over all of Bohemia and uniting the entire Hussite movement. However, his great influence and power did not seem to please much of the Prague bourgeoisie and nobility. For this reason, Prague agreed with the Catholics to confront Žižka, leading to the Battle of Malešov in June 1424 between Žižka’s forces and those of Prague. As expected, Jan Žižka was the victor of this battle, and the city of Prague swore allegiance to him. However, Žižka died on 11 October 1424 when he was determined to conquer Moravia.
Žižka’s death marked a turning point in the Hussite revolution. The vladyka managed to unite all the chalicists in the same direction, which was very difficult to regain.
The Hussites under Prokop the Great
Finding a leader half as exceptional as Žižka was a difficult task. Finally, a Hussite priest, Prokop the Great, took the reins of this movement. He had entered the military branch years before in the young town of Tábor. This chaplain was the military head in 1426 during the battle of Ustí nad Labem against the new military campaign sent by the Church. This proved that he could be a successful hejtman. On the other hand, he succeeded in unifying all the Hussite factions, as his predecessor had done, and he also fought to make the Four Articles of Prague a reality. Under Prokop the Great, the Hussites expanded beyond Moravia, even into Silesia and Slovakia. In the new places they conquered, the Hussites found allies among the bourgeoisie and peasants.
As they gained more and more support and territory, the Church and Sigismund ordered another attack against them in 1431. Once again, the Hussite army defeated the Crusaders in a new battle at Domažlice.
After this latest failure of the Church and Sigismund, Pope Martin V had had enough and was unwilling to continue accumulating more disastrous results. He understood that he had to sit down and negotiate with the Hussites. To this end, he invited them to the Council of Basel, which took place between 1431 and 1445. The old institution wanted to discuss the religious question with Prokop the Great, which caused them despair for years. The new hejtman accepted the invitation, but before leaving for the present-day Swiss city, he met in May 1432 in the Czech town of Cheb with chalicists from all sides to agree on what they would discuss with the Church. The Czechs concluded that they would go there as equals, not as heretics, and would defend the free reading and interpretation of the Bible and the Four Articles of Prague. They also ensured that there would be an actual meeting between the two and that they would not end up burned at the stake, as happened to Master Jan Hus in Constance.
The Council of Basel
Prokop the Great left for the council with representatives of the radical and moderate Hussites in December of the same year. The Czechs arrived in Basel in January 1433. In their meetings with the Papacy, they repeatedly defended the Four Articles of Prague and the freedom of preaching. The chalicists were clear about what they stood for and did not want to give up any of the points. Despite several talks, they did not agree with Pope Eugene IV (Martin V died in 1431), so both the Church and they decided to continue the meetings in Prague.
Months later a delegation from the council arrived in the Bohemian capital to negotiate with the Hussites. Rome apparently wanted to come to an agreement with the Hussites, but their plan was to weaken the movement from within behind Prokop the Great’s back. Thus, Catholics sent by the pope offered money to Hussite nobles and bourgeoisie in exchange for ousting Prokop and the radicals. In return, those bribed would return to Catholicism on the condition that they could commune with both species.
At that time, apart from being a military leader, Prokop the Great dominated almost the entire country since the Taborite Urban Federation united more than thirty towns in Bohemia and had the support of many minor nobles, peasants and bourgeoisie. On the other hand, the Prague Urban Federation, which was more moderate, united only four towns but had the support of many great nobles. For this reason, because of its great political and military influence, part of the bourgeoisie and the nobility hatched a plot against him.
The Battle of Lipany
Numerous nobles and burghers formed the Unity of the Lords, which militarily grouped together Hussites opposed to the hejtman. Even some members of the Taborites joined the new unit against the Hussite priest. The military group of the lords grew larger and larger and even recruited mercenaries. The first attack by the moderates was in May 1434, when they entered the New Town of Prague and occupied the town hall. This caught Prokop the Great and his troops, who were in Pilsen, off guard. After this, the radical leader left Pilsen to go with his men to Lipany to confront those who had betrayed him.
Once in the town of Lipany, the last battle of the Hussite Wars broke out on 30 May 1433. For the second time they did not fight against foreign forces, but against each other, as had happened to Jan Žižka a few years earlier. It was a long battle in which the utraquists themselves took up arms against each other, and Prokop the Great lost his life, putting an end to these long wars. As the great Spanish poet of the Golden Age, Francisco de Quevedo, said: “A mighty gentleman is Don Dinero”. The Papacy achieved with money what it was unable to achieve in fifteen years with arms.
After the defeat of the radical Hussite wing, Bohemia recognised Emperor Sigismund as Czech king in 1436. Even Tábor, the movement’s headquarters, surrendered to Sigismund and changed the chalice on its coat of arms to a double-headed eagle, the symbol of the Holy Roman Empire. However, Zdeněk Vybíral explains that Tábor was granted some privileges in return, such as the autonomy of its municipal government and the independence of its church. As for the Bohemian Church, Vybíral indicates that, as agreed with the delegation of the Council of Basel, it accepted the supremacy of the Papacy but was granted communion with bread and wine to its parishioners.
The Hussites put in check the ideological dominance of the Catholic Church, criticising its dogmas and the only way in which, according to the institution, it was possible to reach God. In addition, they pointed to the wealth of ecclesiastical power and its ever-increasing fortunes at the expense of the faithful. They advocated a much simpler way of developing and maintaining the faith, which was characterised by the fact that there was no difference between the pulpit and the parishioners. The Hussite uprising was also a struggle against the most powerful feudal power, which mobilised the popular strata together, from the peasantry through the bourgeoisie to the lower nobility. Moreover, this uprising, which faced the Czech lands against the Church of Rome itself for fifteen years, gave a leading role to the Czech bourgeoisie, which the German patriciate had hitherto usurped. The Hussite Revolution was undoubtedly a courageous and turbulent period in the present-day Czech Republic, which tried to change the political and religious situation in the Czech Kingdom. Never before had the word of the Catholic Church been challenged in such a lasting and strong way, nor has the ecclesiastical power had to face an organised people who are aware that the high clergy are trampling on them. Unfortunately, it also shows that there are always, or almost always, groups of fanatics who are willing to carry out violent acts, such as the burning of religious buildings, and who harm the rest of the members who want to carry out a movement supported by a large part of society.
It is not logical to pretend to make a revolution if you do not know what it is for. The eternal vladyka was clear about the aims of the revolution and that it was essential for all Hussites to be united, regardless of the status to which they belonged. And he knew that there were cliques, such as the millenarianist clique, who wanted to give priority to their theories and doctrines over the common good, which was an obstacle to Hussitism. Only in this way, with disciplined cooperation among the Hussites under the same leadership, were the Chalicists able to defeat the crusades sent by the Pope of Rome himself on several occasions. And, of course, also thanks to the military expertise of the one-eyed warrior. This is why Jan Žižka has been the Czech national hero in History. To this day, the Hussite wars are still considered an important event in the country and the figure of the charismatic Hussite leader is widely known in today’s Czech Lands.
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[1] Historie česko-německých vztahů v českých zemích do roku 1918 https://www.sudetsti-nemci.cz/cs/hist0/hist1/
[2] První pražská defenestrace: Husity inspirovala Bible i události ve Slezsku deník.cz 30.07.2019 https://www.denik.cz/z_domova/prvni-prazska-defenestrace-husity-inspirovala-bible-i-udalosti-ve-slezsku-20190725.html